| Measurement and Assessment in Education, 2/E by |
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This text employs a pragmatic approach to the study of educational tests and measurement so that teachers will understand essential psychometric concepts and be able to apply them in the classroom.
The principles that guide the development of this text are:
(1) What essential knowledge and skills do classroom teachers need to conduct student assessments in a professional manner? (2) What does the research on educational assessment tell us? This focus has resulted in a uniquely approachable and technically accurate presentation of the material.
While providing a slightly more technical presentation of measurement and assessment than more basic texts, this text is both approachable and comprehensive. The text includes a gentle introduction to the basic mathematics of measurement, and expands traditional coverage to include a thorough discussion of performance and portfolio assessments, a complete presentation of assessment accommodations for students with disabilities, and a practical discussion of professional best practices in educational measurement. Chapter 1: Introduction to Educational Assessment
I. Introduction
II. The Language of Assessment A. Tests, Measurement, & Assessment B. Types of Tests C. Types of Scores Interpretations
III. Assumptions of Educational Assessment A. Psychological and educational constructs exist. B. Psychological and educational constructs can be measured. C. While we can measure constructs, our measurement is not perfect. D. There are different ways to measure any given construct. E. All assessment procedures have strengths and limitations. F. Multiple sources of information should be part of the assessment process. G. Performance on tests can be generalized to non-test behaviors. H. Assessment can provide information that helps educators make better educational decisions. I. Assessments can be conducted in a fair manner. J. Testing and assessment can benefit our educational institutions and society as a whole.
IV. Participants in the Assessment Process A. People who develop tests. B. People who use tests. C. People who take tests. D. Other people involved in the assessment process.
V. Common Application of Educational Assessments A. Student Evaluation B. Instructional Decisions C. Selection, Placement, and Classification Decisions D. Policy Decisions E. Counseling and Guidance Decisions
VI. What Teachers Need to Know About Assessment A. Teachers should be proficient in selecting professionally developed assessment procedures that are appropriate for making instructional decisions. B. Teachers should be proficient in developing assessment procedures that are appropriate for making instructional decisions. C. Teachers should be proficient in administering, scoring, and interpreting professionally developed and teacher-made assessment procedures. D. Teachers should be proficient in using assessment results when making educational decisions. E. Teachers should be proficient in developing valid grading procedures that incorporate assessment information. F. Teachers should be proficient in communicating assessment results. G. Teachers should be proficient in recognizing unethical, illegal, and other inappropriate uses of assessment procedures or information.
VII. Educational Assessment in the 21st Century A. Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) and Other Technological Advances. B. Authentic Assessments C. Educational Accountability and High-Stakes Assessment D. Trends in the Assessment of Students with Disabilities
VIII. Summary
Tables
A. Table 1.1: Major Categories of Tests B. Table 1.2: Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Scores C. Table 1.3: Assumptions of Educational Assessment D. Table 1.4: Common Applications of Educational Assessments E. Table 1.5: Teacher Competencies in Educational Assessment
Special Interest Topics
A. Special Interest Topic 1.1: Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment — Another Step Toward Unifying Assessment and Instruction B. Special Interest Topic 1.2: Technology and Assessment in the Schools C. Special Interest Topic 1.3: Princeton Review's Rankings of High-Stakes Testing Programs D. Special Interest Topic 1.4: The “Nation’s Report Card” E. Special Interest Topic 1.5: What Does the 21st Century Hold for the Assessment Profession?
Chapter 2: The Basic Mathematics of Measurement
I. The Role of Mathematics in Assessment
II. Scales of Measurement A. What is Measurement? B. Nominal Scales C. Ordinal Scales D. Interval Scales E. Ratio Scales
III. The Description of Test Scores A. Distributions B. Measures of Central Tendency C. Measures of Variability
IV. Correlation Coefficients A. Scatterplots B. Correlation and Prediction C. Types of Correlation Coefficients D. Correlation and Causality
V. Summary
Tables Table 2.1: Common Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, & Ratio Scales Table 2.2: Distribution of Scores for 20 Students Table 2.3: Ungrouped Frequency Distribution Table 2.4: Group Frequency Distribution Table 2.5: Calculating the Standard Deviation and Variance Table 2.6: Calculating a Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Figures
Figure 2.1: Graph of the Homework Scores Figure 2.2: Hypothetical
Distribution of Large Standardization Sample Figure 2.4: Positively Skewed Distribution Figure 2.5: Bimodal Distribution Figure 2.6: Relationship between Mean, Median, and Mode in Normal and Skewed Distributions Figure 2.7: Three Distributions with Different Degrees of Variability Figure 2.8: Scatterplots of Different Correlation Coefficients
Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 2.1: Population Parameters and Sample Statistics Special Interest Topic 2.2: A Public Outrage: Physicians Overcharge Their Patients Special Interest Topic 2.3: Is the Variance Always Larger Than the Standard Deviation? Special Interest Topic 2.4: Caution: Drawing Conclusions of Causality
Chapter 3: The Meaning of Test Scores
I. Introduction
II. Norm-Referenced & Criterion-Referenced Score Interpretations A. Norm-Referenced Interpretations B. Criterion-Referenced Interpretations
III. Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, or Both?
IV. Qualitative Description of Scores
V. Summary
Tables
Table 3.1: Transforming Raw Scores to Standard Scores Table 3.2: Relationship of Different Standard Score Formats Table 3.3: Converting Standard Scores From One Format to Another Table 3.4: Characteristics of Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Scores
Figures Figure 3.1: Illustration of the Normal Distribution Figure 3.2: Normal Distribution with Mean, Standard Deviation, & Percentages. Figure 3.3: Normal Distribution Illustrating the Relationship among Standard Scores. Special Interest Topics Special Interest Topic 3.1: The “Flynn Effect.” Special Interest Topic 3.2: Whence the Normal Curve? Special Interest Topic 3.3: Why do IQ Tests use a Mean of 100 and Standard Deviation of 15? Special Interest Topic 3.4: The History of Stanine Scores Special Interest Topic 3.5: Every Child on Grade Level?
Chapter 4: Reliability for Teachers I. Introduction
II. Errors of Measurement A. Sources of Measurement Error
III. Methods of Estimating Reliability A. Test-Retest Reliability B. Alternate Form Reliability C. Internal Consistency Reliability D. Inter-Rater Reliability E. Reliability of Composite Scores F. Selecting a Reliability Coefficient G. Evaluating Reliability Coefficients H. How to Improve Reliability I. Special Problems in Estimating Reliability
IV. The Standard Error of Measurement A. Evaluating the Standard Error of Measurement
V. Reliability: Practical Strategies for Teachers
VI. Summary Tables
Table 4.1: Major Types of Reliability Table 4.2: Half-Test Coefficients and Corresponding Full-Test Coefficients Corrected with the Spearman-Brown Formula Table 4.3: Calculation of KR 20 Table 4.4: Calculation of Coefficient Alpha Table 4.5: Calculating Inter-Rater Agreement Table 4.6: Source of Error Variance Associated with Major Types of Reliability Table 4.7: Reliability Expected When Increasing the Numbers of Items Table 4.8: Standard Errors of Measurement for Values of Reliability and Standard Deviations Table 4.9: Reliability Estimates for Tests with a Mean of 80%
Figures
Figure 4.1: Partitioning the Variance
Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 4.1: Generalizability Theory Special Interest Topic 4.2: Consistency of Classification with Mastery Tests Special Interest Topic 4.3: A Quick Way To Estimate Reliability for Classroom Exams
Chapter 5: Validity for Teachers
I. Introduction A. Threats to Validity B. Reliability & Validity
II. "Types of Validity" versus "Types of Validity Evidence"
III. Types of Validity Evidence A. Evidence Based on Test Content B. Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables C. Evidence Based on Internal Structure D. Evidence Based on Response Processes E. Evidence Based on Consequences of Testing F. Integrating Evidence of Validity
IV. Validity: Practical Strategies for Teachers
V. Chapter Summary
Tables
Table 5.1: Tracing Historical Trends in the Concept of Validity Table 5.2: Sources of Validity Evidence
Figures
Figure 5.1: Illustration of Item Relevance Figure 5.2: Illustration of Content Coverage Figure 5.3: Predictive and Concurrent Studies Figure 5.4: Graph of a Regression Line
Special Interest Topic
Special Interest Topic 5.1: Regression, Prediction, and Your First Algebra Class
Chapter 6: Item Analysis for Teachers
I. Introduction
II. Item Difficulty Index (or Item Difficulty Level) A. Special Assessment Situations and Item Difficulty
III. Item Discrimination A. Item Discrimination on Mastery Tests B. Difficulty and Discrimination on Speed Tests
IV. Distracter Analysis A. How Distracters Influence Item Difficulty and Discrimination
V. Item Analysis: Practical Strategies for Teachers
VI. Using Item Analysis to Improve Items
VII. Item Analysis and Performance Assessments VIII. Qualitative Item Analysis
IX. Using Item Analysis to Improve Classroom Instruction
X. Summary
Tables
Table 6.1: Optimal p Values for Items with Varying Numbers of Choices Table 6.2: Guidelines for Evaluating D Values Table 6.3: Maximum D Values at Different Difficulty Levels Table 6.4: Two Examples of Test Scoring and Item Analysis Programs
Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 6.1: Item Difficulty Indexes and Power Tests Special Interest Topic 6.2: Item Analysis for Constructed Response Items Special Interest Topic 6.3: Developing a Test Bank
Chapter 7: The Initial Steps in Developing a Classroom Test: Deciding What to Test and How to Test It
I. Introduction
II. Characteristics of Educational Objectives
III. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives A. Cognitive Domain B. Affective Domain C. Psychomotor Domain
IV. Behavioral versus Nonbehavioral Educational Objectives
V. Writing Educational Objectives VI. Developing a Table of Specifications VII. Implementing the Table of Specifications and Developing an Assessment A. Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Assessment B. Selecting which types of items to use C. Putting the Assessment Together VIII. Preparing your Students and Administering the Assessment. IX. Summary Tables
Table 7.1: Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Table 7.2: Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of Affective Objectives Table 7.3: Harrow’s Taxonomy of Psychomotor Objectives Table 7.4: Learning Objectives for Chapter 2: The Basic Math of Measurement Table 7.5: Table of Specifications for Test on Chapter 2: Based on Content Areas Table 7.6: Table of Specifications for Test on Chapter 2: Content Areas with Percentages Table 7.7: Strengths and Weaknesses of Selected-Response Items Table 7.8: Strengths and Weaknesses of Constructed-Response Items Table 7.9: Practical Suggestions for Assembling an Assessment
Special Interest Topics
A. Special Interest Topic 7.1: Suggestions for Reducing Test Anxiety. B. Special Interest Topic 7.2: Strategies for Preventing Cheating Chapter 8: The Development and Use of Selected-Response Items
I. Introduction II. Multiple-choice Items A. Guidelines for Developing Multiple-choice Items B. Strengths and Weaknesses of Multiple-choice Items
III. True-False Items A. Guidelines for Developing Multiple-choice Items B. Strengths and Weaknesses of Multiple-choice Items
IV. Matching Items A. Guidelines for Developing Matching Items B. Strengths and Weaknesses of Matching Items
V. Summary Tables
Table 8.1: Checklist for the Development of Multiple-choice Items Table 8.2: Strengths and Weaknesses of Multiple-choice Items Table 8.3: Checklist for the Development of True-False Items Table 8.4: Strengths and Weaknesses of True-False Items Table 8.5: Checklist for the Development of Matching Items Table 8.6: Strengths and Weaknesses of Matching Items
Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 8.1: Do Multiple-choice Items Penalize Creative Students? Special Interest Topic 8.2: Correction for Guessing Special Interest Topic 8.3: What research says about "Changing your answer?"
Chapter 9: The Development and Use of Constructed-Response Items
I. Introduction II. Oral Testing: The Oral Essay as a Precursor of Constructed-Response Items III. Essay Items A. Purposes of Essay Items B. Essay Items at Different Levels of Complexity C. Restricted-Response versus Extended-Response Essays D. Guidelines for Developing Essay Items E. Strengths and Weaknesses of Essay Items F. Guidelines for Scoring Essay Items
III. Short-Answer Items A. Guidelines for Developing Short-Answer Items B. Strengths and Weaknesses of Short-Answer Items
IV. A Final Note: Constructed-Response versus Selected-Response Items
V. Summary Tables
Table 9.1: Purposes of Essay Testing Table 9.2: Guidelines for the Development of Essay Items Table 9.3: Strengths and Weaknesses of Essay Items Table 9.4: Holistic Scoring Rubric Table 9.5: Analytic Scoring Rubric Table 9.6: Guidelines for Scoring Essay Items Table 9.7: Guidelines for the Development of Short-Answer Items Table 9.8: Strengths and Weaknesses of Short-Answer Items
Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 9.1: Computer Scoring of Essay Items
Chapter 10: Performance Assessments & Portfolios I. Introduction - What Are Performance Assessments?
II. Guidelines for Developing Effective Performance Assessments A. Selecting Appropriate Performance Tasks B. Developing Instructions C. Developing Procedures for Scoring Responses D. Implementing Procedures to Minimize Errors in Rating
III. Strengths & Weaknesses of Performance Assessments
IV. Portfolios
V. Guidelines for Developing Portfolio Assessments
VI. Strengths & Weaknesses of Portfolios
VII. Summary
List of Tables
Table 10.1: Guidelines for Selecting Performance Tasks. Table 10.2: Guidelines for Developing Instructions for Performance Assessments. Table 10.3: Example of a Rating Scale using Verbal Descriptions Table 10.4: Example of a Numerical Rating Scale Table 10.5: Example of a Graphic Rating Scale Table 10.6: Example of a Descriptive Graphic Rating Scale Table 10.7: Example of a Checklist Used with Preschool Children Table 10.8: Guidelines for Developing and Implementing Scoring Procedures Table 10.9: Strengths & Weaknesses of Performance Assessments Table 10.10: Guidelines for Developing Portfolio Assessments Table 10.11: Strengths and Weaknesses of Portfolios Assessments
Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 10.1: Example of a Performance Assessment in Mathematics Special Interest Topic 10.2: Reliability Issues in Performance Assessments Special Interest Topic 10.3: Performance Assessments in High-Stakes Testing.
Chapter 11: Assigning Grades on the Basis of Classroom Assessments
I. Introduction
II. Feedback and Evaluation A. Formal and Informal Evaluation B. The Use of Formative Evaluation in Summative Evaluation
III. Reporting Student Progress: Which Symbols to Use
IV. The Basis for Assigning Grades
V. Frame of Reference A. Norm-Referenced Grading (Relative Grading) B. Criterion-Referenced Grading (Absolute Grading) C. Achievement in Relation to Improvement or Effort D. Achievement Relative to Ability E. Recommendations
VI. Combining Grades Into a Composite
VII. Informing Students of Grading System
VIII. Parent Conferences
IX. Summary
Tables
Table 11.1: Report Form Reflecting Achievement and Non-Achievement Factors Table 11.2: Examples of Grading based on Effort versus Achievement Table 11.3: Example of Weighting Different Assessment Procedures Table 11.4: Commercially Available Grade Book Programs Table 11.5: Example of Grading Requirements Presented to Students at the Beginning of a Test & Measurement Course
Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 11.1: Brief History of Grading Special Interest Topic 11.2: Schools No Longer Assigning Ds? Special Interest Topic 11.3: Grading and Punishment? Special Interest Topic 11.4: Some Thoughts on Weighting Assessment Procedures
Chapter 12: Standardized Achievement Tests in the Era of High-Stakes Assessment
I. Introduction
II. Group Administered Achievement Tests A. Commercially Developed Group Achievement Test B. State Developed Achievement Tests C. Best Practices in Achievement Testing in the Schools
III. Individual Achievement Tests
IV. Selecting an Achievement Battery
V. Summary
Tables
Table 12.1: Major Publishers of Standardized Group Achievement Tests Table 12.2: Important Test-Taking Skills to Teach Students
Figures
Figure 12.1: TerraNova The Second Edition Sample Report - Individual Profile Report Figure 12.2: TerraNova The Second Edition Sample Report - Home Report Figure 12.3: Performance Profile for Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) Figure 12.4: Profile Narrative for Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) Figure 12.5: Score Labels for the Iowa Tests and CogAT
Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 12.1: Standards-Based Assessment Special Interest Topic 12.2: Finding Information on Standardized Tests Special Interest Topic 12.3: Mismatch Between State Standards and Off-The-Shelf Achievement Tests Special Interest Topic 12.4: American Educational Research Association (AERA) Position Statement on High-Stakes Testing. Special Interest Topic 12.5: Why Standardized Tests Should Not be Used to Evaluate Educational Quality Special Interest Topic 12.6: Value-Added Assessment: A New Approach to Educational Accountability Special Interest Topic 12.7: Deciding Not to Test an Upset Student.
Chapter 13: The Use of Aptitude Tests in the Schools I. Introduction
II. A Brief History of Intelligence Tests
III. The Use of Aptitude and Intelligence Tests in the Schools A. Aptitude-Achievement Discrepancies
IV. Aptitude and Intelligence Tests A. Group Aptitude/Intelligence Tests B. Individual Aptitude/Intelligence Tests C. Selecting Aptitude/Intelligence Tests
V. College Admission Tests
VI. Summary Tables
Table 13.1: Organization of Major Group Intelligence/Aptitude Tests Table 13.2: Organization of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - 4th Edition (WISC-IV) Table 13.3: Organization of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 5th Edition (SB5) Table 13.4: Organization of Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ-III) Tests of Cognitive Abilities Table 13.5: Organization of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) Table 13.6: Organization of the Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT)
Figures
Figure 13.1: A Continuum of General Abilities Figure 13.2: InView Sample Report - Home Report Form Figure 13.3: Profile Narrative for the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) Figure 13.4: Combined Profile Narrative for the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) and the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) Figure 13.5: Achievement/Ability Graphic Comparison of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) and the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT)
Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 13.1:The Controversial IQ: Knows & Unknowns Special Interest Topic 13.2: The Controversial IQ: IQ Tests & Schools Special Interest Topic 13.3:Ability Profiles on the CogAT
Chapter 14: Assessment of Behavior and Personality I. Assessing Behavior and Personality A. Response Sets B. Assessment of Behavior and Personality in the Schools
II. Behavior Rating Scales A. Behavior Assessment System for Children - TRS & PRS B. Conners Rating Scales - Revised C. Child Behavior Checklist & Teacher Report Form
III. Self-Report Measures A. Behavior Assessment System for Children - Self-Report of Personality B. Youth Self-Report
IV. Projective Techniques A. Projective Drawings B. Sentence Completion Tests C. Apperception Tests D. Inkblot Tests
V. Summary Tables Table 14.1: Composites and Scales in the TRS and PRS Table 14.2: Composites and Scales in the SRP Table 14.3: The Projective Debate
Figures Figure 14.1: Completed Clinical and Adaptive Profile sections of a TRS Figure 14.2: Completed Clinical and Adaptive Profile sections of a SRP Figure 14.3: A Picture Similar to Those Used on Apperception Tests Figure 14.4: An Inkblot Similar to Those Used on Inkblot Tests
Special Interest Topics Special Interest Topic 14:1: The Handsome and Deformed Leg Special Interest Topic 14.2: An Example of a "Fake Good" Response Set Special Interest Topic 14.3: Popular Tests of Behavior & Personality
Chapter 15: Assessment Accommodations for Students with Disabilities
I. Introduction
II. Major Legislation that Impact the Assessment of Students with Disabilities
III. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) A. IDEA Categories of Disabilities
IV. Section 504
V. The Rationale for Accommodations
VI. When are accommodations not appropriate or necessary?
VII. Strategies for Accommodations A. Modifications of Presentation Format B. Modifications of Response Format C. Modifications of Timing D. Modification of Setting E. Adaptive Devices and Supports F. Using Only Portion of a Test G. Using Alternate Assessments
VIII. Determining What Accommodations to Provide
IX. Reporting Results of Modified Assessments
X. Summary Tables
Table 15.1: Accommodations Involving Modifications of the Presentation Format Table 15.2: Accommodations Involving Modifications of the Response Format Table 15.3: Accommodations Involving Modifications of Timing Table 15.4: Accommodations Involving Modifications of Setting Table 15.5: Accommodations Involving Adaptive Devices and Supports Table 15.6: Determining which Accommodations to Provide
List of Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 15.1: Differential Effects & Assessment Accommodations? Special Interest Topic 15.2: Allowable Accommodations in a Statewide Assessment Program Special Interest Topic 15.3: Assessment of Students with Disabilities — Selected Legal Issues
Chapter 16: The Problem of Bias in Educational Assessment I. Introduction II. What Do We Mean By Bias? III. Past and Present Concerns: A Brief Look IV. The Controversy over Bias in Testing: Its Origin, What it is, and What it is Not V. Cultural Bias and the Nature of Psychological Testing VI. Objections to the Use of Educational Tests with Minorities A. Inappropriate content B. Inappropriate standardization samples. C. Examiner and language bias. D. Inequitable social consequences. E. Measurement of different constructs. F. Differential predictive validity. G. Qualitatively distinct aptitude and personality.
VII. The Problem of Definition in the Study of Bias VIII. Culture Free Tests, Cultural Loading, and Cultural Bias IX. Inappropriate Indicators of Bias: Mean Differences & Equivalent Distributions X. Bias in Test Content XII. Bias in Other Internal Features of Tests XIII. Bias in Predictive and in Relation to Variables External to the Test XV. Conclusion List of Figures Figure 16.1: Equal Slopes and Intercepts Figure 16.2: Equal Slopes with Differing Intercepts Figure 16.3: Equal Intercepts and Differing Slopes Figure 16.4: Differing Slopes and Intercepts
Special Interest Topics Special Interest Topic 16.1: Sex Differences in Intelligence Special Interest Topic 16.2: Courtroom Controversy Over IQ Testing in the Public Schools Special Interest Topic 16.3: Fairness & Bias — A Complex Relationship
Chapter 17: Best Practices in Educational Assessment
I. Introduction II. Guidelines for Developing Assessments III. Guidelines for Published Assessments IV. Guidelines for Administering Assessments V. Guidelines for Scoring Assessments VI. Guidelines for Interpreting, Using, and Communicating Assessment Results VII. Responsibilities of Test Takers VIII. Summary
List of Tables
Table 17.1: Checklist for Developing Assessments Table 17.2: Checklist for Selecting Published Assessments Table 17.3: Checklist for Administering Assessments Table 17.4 Checklist for Scoring Assessments Table 17.5: Checklist for Interpreting, Using, and Communicating Assessment Results Table 17.6: Responsibilities of Test Takers
List of Special Interest Topics
Special Interest Topic 17.1: Teachers Cheating? Special Interest Topic 17.2: Steps to Prevent Student Cheating.
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